Brief Contents Detailed Contents vii Preface XXi 7 Visions of the Future 1 2 Valuing the Environment: Concepts 14 3 Valuing the Environment: Methods 30 イ Property Rights, Externalities, and Environmental Problems 55 Sustainable Development: Defining the Concept 80 The P 叩 ulation ProbIem 93 Natural Resource Economics: An Overview 117 Energy 131 9 Water 155 ル Agriculture 174 育 Biodiversity I: Forest Habitat 195 72 Biodiveristy Ⅱ : Commercially Valuable Species 217 73 Environmental Economics: An Overview 241 7 イ Stationary-Source Local Air P011ution 260 な Acid Rain and Atmosphere M0dification 285 7 ぢ Transportation 309 ク Water Pollution 333

ⅵ B éfCo れれな な ル 20 2 7 22 SoIid Waste and Recycling 359 Toxic Substances and Hazardous Wastes 379 Development, Poverty, and the Environment 407 The Quest for Sustainable Devel 叩 ment 432 Visions of the Future Revisited 461 Glossary 473 lndex 483

Detailed Contents Preface XXi 7 Visions of the Future 1 INTRODUCTION 1 The Self-Extinction Premise 1 EnvironmentaI and Natural Resource Economics 3 Thinking About the Future 3 THE BASIC PESSIMIST MODEL 3 Concl usions Of the Pessimist Model 3 EXAMPLE 1.1 THE DANGERS OF PROGNOSTICATION 4 The Nature of the Model 6 THE BASIC OPTIMIST MODEL 7 Conclusions Of the Optimist Model 7 The Nature of the Model 8 THE ROAD AHEAD 9 The lssues 10 An Overview of the Book 1 1 Summary 12 Further Reading 13 Additional References 13 Discussion Questions 13 2 Valuing the Environment: Concepts 14 INTRODUCTION 14 THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP 15 The Environment an Asset 15 The Economic Approach 1 7 NORMATIVE CRITERIA FOR DECISION MAKING 17 Evaluating Predefined Options 1 7 EXAMPLE 2.1 NATURE KNOWS BEST 19 VII

VIII De イ Co れれな Pollution Control 26 APPLYING THE CONCEPTS 26 Dynamic Efficiency 26 Static Efficiency 25 FINDING THE OPTIMAL OUTCOME 24 EXAMPLE 2.2 DOES REDUCING POLLUTION MAKE ECONOMIC SENSE? 27 Preservation Versus Development 28 EXAMPLE 2.3 CHOOSING BETWEEN PRESERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT AUSTRALIA 28 3 Summary 29 Further Reading 29 Additional References 29 Discussion Question 29 Valuing the Environment: Meth0ds INTRODUCTION 30 RISK ASS ESSMENT 31 VALUING BENEFITS FOR RISK MANAGEMENT Types 0f Values 32 ClassiWing Valuation Meth0ds 33 32 EXAMPLE 3.1 VALUING THE NORTHERN SPOITED OW し 30 33 EXAMPLE 3.2 VALUING DAMAGE FROM GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION USING AVERTING EXPENDITURES 37 EXAMPLE 3.3 VALUING DIESEL ODOR REDUCTION BY CONTINGENT RANKING 38 EXAMPLE 3.4 THE VALUE OF WILDLIFE VIEWING 39 lssues in Benefit Estimation 40 Approaches t0 COSt Estimation 42 The Treatment of Risk 43 Choosing the Discount Rate 45 EXAMPLE 3.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE DISCOUNT RATE A Critical Appraisal 47 COST-EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS 48 Discussion Questions 54 Additional References 53 Further Reading 52 Summary 51 lmpact Analysis 50 OF COST-EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS 50 EXAMPLE 3.6 N02 CONTROL CHICAGO: AN EXAMPLE 46

De イ Co な イ 5 Pr 叩 erty Rights, Externalities, and Environmental Problems INTRODUCTION 55 PROPERTY RIGHTS 56 55 P 「 ope 「ツ Rights and Efficient Market Allocations 56 Effi cient P 「 ope 「 Right Structures 56 EXAM P LE 4.1 PO 乢 u 引 ON IN CEN 「 RALLY PLANNED ECONOMIES 57 Producer's Surplus, Sca 「 ci Rent, and Long-Run Competitive Equilibrium EXTERNALITIES AS A SOURCE OF MARKET FAILURE 60 The Conceptlntrod uced 60 Types Of ExternaIities 62 IMPROPERLY DESIGNED PROPERTY RIGHTS SYSTEM 62 Other P 「 ope 「ツ Rights Regimes 62 EXAMPLE 4.2 SHRIMP FARMING EXTERNALITIES THAILAND 63 PubIic Goods 66 EXAMPLE 4.3 PUBLIC GOODS PRIVATELY PROVIDED: THE NATURE CONSERVANCY 60 68 IMPERFECT MARKET STRUCTURES 69 DIVERGENCE OF SOCIAL AND PRIVATE DISCOUNT RATES 69 GOVERNMENT FAILURE 71 EXAMPLE 4.4 RELIGION AS THE SOURCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS PURSUIT OF EFFICIENCY 73 Private Resolution through Negotiation 73 Courts: Property RuIes and Liability Rules 74 Legislative and Executive ReguIation 76 AN EFFICIENT ROLE FOR GOVERNMENT 76 Summary 77 Further Reading 77 Additional References 78 Discussion Questions 79 72 Sustainable Development: Defining the Concept INTRODUCTION 80 A N/O-PERIOD MODEL 81 DEFINING INTERTEMPORAL FAIRNESS 85 ARE EFFICIENT ALLOCATIONS FAIR? 86 80

X Detailed Co な IMPLICATIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 89 EXAMPLE 5.1 NAURU: WEAK SUSTAINAB 旧 TY THE EXTREME APPLYING THE SUSTAINABILITY CRITERION 87 89 Summary 90 Further Reading 91 Additional References 92 Discussion Question 92 The P 叩 ulation Problem INTRODUCTION 93 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 94 WorId Population Growth 94 93 Population Growth in the united States 95 THE CASE OF KERALA 1 12 EXAMPLE 6.3 ACHIEVING FERT 旧 TY DECLINES LOW INCOME COUNTRIES: EXAMPLE 6.2 FERTILITY DECLINE 爪 KOREA: A CASE STI-IDY 1 10 EXAMPLE 6.1 THE VALUE OF AN AVERTED 灯 H 106 THE ECONOMIC APPROACH TO POPULATION CONTROL 105 EFFECTS OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ON POPULATION GROWTH EFFECTS OF POPULATION 0R0 Ⅵ丁 H ON ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 96 103 EXAMPLE 6.4 INCOME-GENERATING ACTIVITIES AS FERT 旧 TY CONTROL: BANGLADESH 1 13 Summary 1 14 Further Reading 1 14 Additional References 1 15 Discussion Questions 1 16 Natural Resource Economics: An Overview 117 INTRODUCTION 1 17 A RESOURCE TAXONOMY 1 18 EXAMPLE 7.1 THE PITFALLS OF MISUSING RESERVE DATA EFFICIENT INTERTEMPORAL ALLOCATIONS 122 The Two-Period Model Revisited 123 The N-Period ModeI 123 Transition to a Renewable Substitute 125 Exploration and Techn010gical Progress 126 MARKET ALLOCATIONS 126 Appropriate Property-Right Structures 126 120

Detailed Co 例な EXAMPLE 7.2 TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS THE ON 0 INDUSTRY 127 XI Environmental Costs 128 Summary 128 Further Reading 129 AdditionaI References 120 Discussion Questions 130 Energy 131 INTRODUCTION 131 NATURAL GAS: PRICE CONTROLS 133 EXAMPLE 8.1 PRICE CONTROLS AND SUBSTITUTION BIAS 0 儿 : THE CARTEL PROBLEM 137 Price EIasticity of Demand 137 lncome Elasticity of Demand 138 Non-OPEC Suppliers 138 135 EXAMPLE 8.2 ARE " SO ENERGY" PATHS DOOMED? 139 Compatibility of MemberInterests 140 TRANSITION FUELS: ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 142 CONSERVATION AND LOAD MANAGEMENT 145 THE LONG RLIN 148 EXAMPLE 8.3 ELECTRICITY DEREGULATION CALIFORNIA: WHAT HAPPENED? 149 9 Summary 152 Further Reading 153 Additional References Discussion Questions Water 155 INTRODUCTION 155 153 154 THE POTENTIAL FOR WATER SCARCITY 156 THE EFFICIENT ALLOCATION OF SCARCE WATER 158 Surface Water 158 Groundwater 159 THE CURRENT ALLOCATION SYSTEM 159 parian and Prior-Appropriation DOCtri nes Sources oflneffciency 161 159

XII Detailed Co 例な 70 々 POTENTIAL REMEDIES 164 EXAMPLE 9.1 USING ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES TO CONSERVE WATER CALIFORNIA EXAMPLE 9.2 PROTECTING INSTREAM USES THROUGH ACQUIRING WATER RIGHTS EXAMPLE 9.3 WATER PRICING ZURICH, SWITZERLAND 169 EXAMPLE 9.4 POLITICS AND THE PRICING OF SCARCE WATER 170 Waterin the Long Run: Desalination Summary 171 Further Reading 172 Additional References 172 Discussion Questions 173 Agriculture 174 INTRODUCTION 174 GLOBAL SCARCITY 175 Examining G10bal Sca 「 ci ツ 176 Outlook fo 「 the Future 178 The Ro 厄 of Agriculture Policies 182 A Summing up 183 DISTRIBUTION OF FOOD RESOURCES 184 Defining the Pr0blem 184 Domestic Prod uction in LDCS 185 The Underevaluation Bias 186 EXAMPLE 10.1 THE PRICE RESPONSIVENESS OF SUPPLY: THAILAND 187 EXAMPLE 10.2 PERVERSE GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION: THE CASE OF COLOMBIA Feeding the P00 「 189 EXAMPLE 10.3 THE DISTRIBUTION DILEMMA: INDIA'S GREEN REVOLUTION 190 FEAST AND FAMINE CYCLES 191 Summary 193 Further Reading 193 Additional References 194 Discussion Questions 194 Biodiversity I: Forest Habitat 195 INTRODUCTION 195 DEFINING PROFIT-MAXIMIZING MANAGEMENT 196 Special Attributes Of the Forest 196 The BioIogical Dimension 197 The Economics of Forest Harvesting 199 165 166 188

De ″ 2 イ Co れれな Xiii LAND CONVERSION 199 SOURCES OF INEFFICIENCY 202 Perverse lncentives fo 「 the Landowner Perverse lncentives for Nations 204 POVERTY AND DEBT 205 SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY 206 PUBLIC POLICY 207 202 EXAMPLE 11.1 PRODUCING SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY THROUGH CERT 旧 CATION EXAMPLE 11.2 SUCCESS STORIES 爪 CONSERVING TROPICAL FO s 212 EXAMPLE 11.3 DOES PHARMACEUTICAL DEMAND OFFER SUFFICIENT PROTECTION TO BIODIVERSITY? 213 EXAMPLE 11.4 TRUST FIJNDS FOR CONSERVATION 214 Summary 214 Further Reading 215 AdditionaI References 216 Discussion Questions 216 209 Bi0diversity Ⅱ : CommerciaIIy Valuable species 217 INTRODUCTION 217 EFFICIENT HARVESTS 218 The BioIogical Dimension 218 Static-Effcient Sustained Yield 220 APPROPRIABILITY AND MARKET SOLUTIONS 222 EXAMPLE 12.1 PROPERTY GH AND FISHERIES: OYSTERS 223 EXAMPLE 12.2 FREE-ACCESS HARVESTING OF THE MINKE WHALE PUBLIC POLICY TOWARD FISHERIES 225 Aquaculture 225 EXAMPLE 12.3 HARBOR GANGS OF へ 4 用 NE Raising the Real Cost of Fishing 227 Taxes 230 226 lndividual Transferable Quotas ( 仼 Qs ) 230 EXAMPLE 12.4 EF 日 CIENT VS. MARKET EXPLOITATION OF LOBSTERS The 200-Mile Limit 234 225 2 引 EXAMPLE 12.5 THE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF TRANSFERABLE QUOTAS AND TRADITIONAL SIZE AND EFFORT RESTRICTIONS IN THE ATLANTIC SEA SCALLOP FISHERY PREVENTING POACHING 236 EXAMPLE 12.6 LOCAL APPROACHES TO WILDLIFE PROTECTION: ZIMBABWE 237 Summary 237 Further Reading 238 235

XIV De イ Co れれな 73 AdditionaI References 239 Discussion Questions 240 EnvironmentaI Economics: An Overview 241 INTRODUCTION 241 A POLLUTANT TAXONOMY 242 DEFINING THE EFFICIENT ALLOCATION OF POLLUTION Fund Pollutants 243 MARKET ALLOCATION OF POLLUTION 245 EFFICIENT POLICY RESPONSES 246 243 EXAMPLE 13.1 ENVIRONMENTAL TAXATION CHINA 247 COST-EFFECTIVE POLICIES FOR EMISSION REDUCTION 248 Defining a Cost-Effective Allocation 248 Cost-Effective PoIIution Contr01 P01icies 249 Emission Standards 250 Emission Charges 250 Transferable Emission Permits 253 OTHER POLICY DIMENSIONS 254 EXAMPLE 13.2 ENERGY-DEMAND UNCERTAINTY AND THE COST OF BEING WRONG: PERMITS vs. CHARGES 256 Summary 257 Further Reading 257 Additional References 258 Discussion Questions 259 Stationary-Source Local Air Pollution INTRODUCTION 260 CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS 261 The Command-and-ControI P01icy Framework 262 260 The Efficiency of the Command-and-Control Approach 265 EXAMPLE 14.1 THE PARTICULATE AND SMOG AMBIENT STANDARDS CONTROVERSY Cost-Effectiveness of the Command-and-Contr01 Approach 268 266 Air Quality 270 INNOVATIVE APPROACHES 271 The Emissions Trading Program 271 EXAMPLE 14.2 THE BUBBLE AND OFFSET POLICIES ACTION Smog Trading 273 The Effectiveness Of Emissions Trading 275 273

De Co れれな Emission Charges 277 Hazardous PoIIutants 278 Emissions Fees 280 EXAM PLE 14.3 EFFICIEN 「 REGULATION OF HAZARDOUS po 乢し AN 「 s : THE BENZENE CASE XV 281 な Summary 282 Further Reading 283 Additional References 283 Discussion Questions 284 Acid Rain and Atmospheric Modification INTRODUCTION 285 REGIONAL POLLUTANTS 286 Acid Rain 286 EXAMPLE 15.1 ADIRONDACK ACID 旧 CATION 288 EXAMPLE 15.2 THE SULFUR ALLOWANCE PROGRAM 292 285 EXAMPLE 15.3 WHY AND How DO ENVIRONMENTALISTS Buy POLLUTION? GLOBAL POLLUTANTS 295 Ozone DepIetion 295 00b Warming 297 293 EXAMPLE 15.4 TRADEABLE PERMITS FOR OZONE-DEPLETING CHEMICALS 298 EXAMPLE 15.5 ETHICS, RISK AVERSION, AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT 300 Summary 305 Further Reading 306 Additional References 307 Transportation 309 INTRODUCTION 309 THE ECONOMICS OF MOBILE-SOURCE POLLUTION lmplicit Subsidies 31 1 Externalities 312 The Consequences 313 POLICY TOWARD MOBILE SOURCES 314 Some History 314 Structure of the u. S. Approach 315 引 1 EXAMPLE 16.1 PROJECT XL—THE QUEST FOR EFFECTIVE, FLEXIBLE REGULATION European Approaches 318 317

XVI Detailed Co 例な Uniformity of Control 321 Differentiated Regulation 320 Technology Forcing and Sanctions 320 EXAMPLE 16.2 CAR SHARING: BEITER USE OF AUTOMOTIVE CAPITAL? AN ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ASSESSMENT 318 引 9 EXAMPLE 16.3 SETTING THE NATIONAL AUTOMOBILE EMISSION STANDARDS 321 The Deterioration Of New-Car Emission Rates 322 Lead Phaseout Program 324 EXAMPLE 16.4 GETTING THE LEAD OLIT: THE LEAD PHASEOUT PROGRAM 325 Alternative FueIs 326 POSSIBLE REFORMS 326 EXAMPLE 16.5 INNOVATIVE MOBILE-POLLUTION CONTROL STRATEGIES: S GAPO 328 EXAMPLE 16.6 COUNTERPRODUCTIVE POLICY DESIGN 329 Summary 330 Further Reading 331 Additional References 331 Discussion Questions 332 Water Pollution 333 INTRODUCTION 333 THE NATURE OF WATER POLLUTION PROBLEMS 334 Types 0f Waste-Receiving Water 334 Sources of Contamination 334 EXAMPLE 17.1 INCIDENTS OF GROUNDWATER POLLUTION 335 Types 0f P011utants 336 WATER POLLUTION CONTROL POLICY 339 Traditional water P011ution Control P01icy 339 Early Legislation 339 Subsequent Legislation 340 The TDML Program 342 The Safe-Drinking Water Act 342 Ocean PoIIution 342 Private Enforcement 343 EFFICIENCY AND COST-EFFECTIVENESS 344 Ambient Standards and the Zero Discharge 344 National Effuent Standards 345 EXAMPLE 17.2 MARKETABLE EMISSION PERMITS ON THE FOX RIVER Municipal Waste Treatment Subsidies 349 348

DetaiIed Co e れな XV II Pretreatment Standards 349 Nonpoint PoII ution 350 EXAMPLE 17.3 COST-EFFECTIVE PRETREATMENT STANDARDS 0 ⅱ SpilIs 352 Citizen Suits 352 EXAMPLE 17.4 ANATOMY OF AN 0 に S 円乢 : THE 月 MOCO CAD 350 353 な An OveraII Assessment 354 Summary 355 Further Reading 356 Additional References 357 Discussion Questions 358 Solid Waste and Recycling INTRODUCTION 359 EFFICIENT RECYCLING 360 Extraction and Disposal Costs 360 359 EXAMPLE 18.1 POPULATION DENSITY AND RECYCLING: THE JAPANESE EXPERIENCE 361 Recycling: A Close 「 Look 361 EXAMPLE 18.2 LEAD RECYCLING 362 WASTE DISPOSAL AND POLLUTION DAMAGE Disposal Costs and Efficiency 363 引 Disposal Decision 363 Disposal Costs and the Scrap Market 365 Subsidies on Raw Materials 365 Corrective Public Policies 365 363 EXAMPLE 18.3 PRICING TRASH ル IA E 幵 A , GEORGIA 366 PoIIution Damage 368 EXAMPLE 18.4 IMPLEMENTING THE "TAKE-BACK ” PRINCIPLE 369 PRODUCT DURABILITY 371 Functional Obsolescence 371 Fashion Obsolescence 372 Durability Obsolescence 372 Summary 375 EXAMPLE 18.5 THE BET 375 Further Reading 376 Additional References 376 Discussion Questions 377

XViii De ″ 2 イ CO れ一の 2 な ル 20 Toxic Substances and Hazardous Wastes INTRODUCTION 379 THE NATURE OF TOXIC SUBSTANCE POLLUTION 380 Health Effects 381 Policy lssues 382 MARKET ALLOCATIONS AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES 384 Occupational Hazards 384 379 EXAMPLE 19.1 SUSCEPTIBLE POPULATIONS 爪 THE HAZARDOUS WORKPLACE Product Safety 387 Third Parties 387 CURRENT POLICY 388 Common Law 388 386 EXAMPLE 19.2 】 u 団 CIA し REMEDIES TOXIC SUBSTANCE CONTROL: THE KEPONE CASE 389 Criminal Law 390 Statutory Law 391 lnternational Agreements 394 AN ASSESSMENT OF THE LEGAL REMEDIES 395 The Common Law 395 引 Statutory Law 399 EXAMPLE 19.3 WEIGHING THE RISKS: SACCHARIN 48 Assurance Bonds: An lnnovative Proposal 402 EXAMPLE 19.4 PERFORMANCE BONDS FOR BROMINATED FLAME RETARDANTS 403 Summary 404 Further Reading 405 Additional References 405 Discussion Questions 406 Development, Poverty, and the Environment INTRODUCTION 407 THE GROWTH PROCESS 409 The Nature of the Process 409 Potential Sources of Reduced Growth 409 The Curse of NaturaI Resources 412 EXAMPLE 20.1 THE "NATURAL RESOURCES CURSE" HYPOTHESIS 412 EnvironmentaI P01icy 413 EXAMPLE 20.2 JOBS VERSLIS THE ENVIRONMENT: WHAT IS THE EVIDENCE? Energy 415 407 414

XiX OUTLOOK FOR THE NEAR FUTURE 416 Population lmpacts 417 The lnformation Economy 417 THE GROWTH-DEVELOPMENT RELATIONSHIP Conventional Measures 418 AItemative Measures 420 418 27 GROWTH AND POVERTY: THE INDUSTRIALIZED NATIONS EXAMPLE 20.3 DOES MONEY Buy HAPPINESS? 423 The Effects on lncome lnequality 424 POVERTY IN THE LESS INDUSTRIALIZED NATIONS 424 The Appropriateness of the TraditionaI Model 425 Barriers tO Development 426 Summary 429 Further Reading 430 AdditionaI References 430 Discussion Questions 431 The Quest for SustainabIe Development INTRODUCTION 432 SUSTAINABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT 433 Market Allocations 435 Efficiency and S ustainability 436 De イ Co 2 れな 432 423 EXAMPLE 21.1 RESOURCE DEPLETION AND ECONOMIC SUSTAINAB 旧科,: MALAYSIA TRADE AND THE ENVI RONMENT 440 A MENU OF OPPORTUNITIES 441 Agriculture 442 EnerU 443 Waste Reduction 443 MANAGING THE TRANSITION 444 EXAMPLE 21.2 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: THREE SUCCESS STORIES 445 Prospects forlnternational Cooperation 446 EXAMPLE 21.3 CONTROLLING LAND LISE DEVELOPMENT WITH TDRS 447 Opportun ities for Cooperation 4 48 Restructuring lncentives 449 FORCED TRANSITION 454 EXAMPLE 21.4 REPUTATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR POLLUTION CONTROL INDONESIA Defining the Target 455 lnstitutional Structure 456 438 455

XX De ″ e Co な 22 Administration 457 Summary 457 Further Reading 459 Additional References 459 Discussion Questions 460 Visions of the Future Revisited ADDRESSING THE ISSUES 461 Conceptualizing the Problem 462 lnstitutional Responses 463 461 EXAMPLE 22.1 PRIVATE INCENTIVES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: CAN ADOPTING SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES BE PROFITABLE? 465 Sustai nable Development 467 EXAMPLE 22.2 PUBLIC/PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS: THE KALUNDBORG EXPERIENCE A Concluding Comment 470 Glossary 473 lndex 483 469

lndex benzene, 281 standard-setti ng policy and, Absorptive capacity, 242 criteria, 261 265 ー 268 decline in, 270 Accumulating pollutants, 338 state implementation plan for Acid rain. See ロな 0 Air pollution; EPA and, 278 ー 280 meeting, 262 ー 263 outdoor concentrations 0f, Pollution Ambient water quality standards, 267 ー 268 command-and-control approach 344 Air pollution. 2 な 0 Acid rain; to, 289 ー 291 American Cyanamid, 386 MobiIe-source pollution; congressional study on, 287 American Lung Association, 293 PoIlution early approaches tO, 287 ー 289 襯 0C0 朝イた , 353 co 引 and, 142 explanation Of, 286 ー 287 Anaerob ic, 337 in developing countries, 408 sulfur allowance program and, Angler Cooperative Association overview of, 260 ー 261 291 ー 294 (England), 167 from road transport, 312 AcrylonitriIe, 279 Anthropocentric measurement, 18 Air pollution control Adaptation strategies, 299 Aquaculture, 226 ー 227 command-and-control 叩 proach Adirondacks, 287 , 288 Aquifer, 164 tO, 261 ー 270 Aerobic, 337 Arizona, 166 , 170 emission charges and, 277 ー 278 Africa. See な 0 specific co ″が Arizona PubIic Service Company, 293 emissions fees and, 280 ー 282 decline in forestlands in, 102 Army Corps of Engineers, 47 emission trading program and, multiple cropping ⅲ , 442 Asia. See 平 ec c co ″れ s 271 ー 273 , 275 ー 277 poverty and deforestation Associated enforcement programs, smog trading and, 273 ー 274 in, 205 315 ー 316 Air PoIIution Control Act of 1955 , Agent Orange, 394 Associated gas, 133 260 Age structure effect, 98 Assurance bonds, 402703 Air quality standards, 50. See な 0 Agriculture Atlantic RichfieId Company, 444 Ambi ent air quality standards allocation ofland for, 179 ー 180 Atlinson, Scott, 289 AIIied Chemical Corporation, 389 distribution of food resources Auctions, 292 , 293 AIIocations. S22 な 0 Efficient and, 184 ー 191 Australia, 28 allocations; Efficient energy costs and, 180 Austria intertemporal allocation environmental COStS and, agricultural chemical reduction finding 叩 timal, 26 180 ー 182 in, 181 market, 126 ー 128 feast and famine cycles and, emission standards in, 318 ParetO optimal, 25 ー 26 Autom0biles. See な 0 Mobile- 191 ー 192 AIternative fuels, 317 global scarcity and, 175 ー 182 source pollution Alternative vehicles, 317 emissions from older, 320 ー 321 governmental policies for, AIuminum cans, 367 182 ー 184 emission standards for, Ambient air quality standards malnourishment and, 174 ー 175 315 ー 316 , 318 explanation Of, 261 ー 262 inspection and maintenance poverty and, 427728 for mobile-source pollutants, sustainable, 181 , 183 , 189 , programs for, 322 ー 323 318 10Ca1 strategies for emission 442 national, 262 , 264 reduction from, 323 ー 324 water pollution from, 335 particulate and smog and, 266 Air pollutants. 立 2 な 0 Pollutants mobile-source pollution from, problems related to, 444746 ambient standards for, 261 ー 262 310 ー 311 483

484 加ズ Autom0bile sharing, 318 , 319 112 , 113 Barth, D. S., 321 Barnett, HaroId, 178 Barbier, Edward B. , 63 Banking, 273 SOil erosion in, 102 population controlin, Bangladesh Bacteria, 338 Averting expenditures, 37 Averted births, 106 Benzene, 279 , 281 tangible, 42 measurement Of, 18 42 , 47 issues in estimation Of, 40 , intangible, 42 explanation 0f, 17 ー 18 Benefits and, 42 tangible vs. intangible benefits shortcomings 0f, 4778 risk evaluation and, 44 ー 45 and, 40 , 42 primary vs. secondary effect positive aspects Of, 48 Of P 叩 ulation control, 105 pollution control and, 26 ー 28 24 ー 26 tO identify optimal 叩 proaches, 279 ー 280 hazardous pollutants and, global warming and, 300 , 304 explanation 0f, 17 ー 24 discount rate and, 4576 4273 cost information collection and, balancing data and, 400701 Benefit-cost analys is Bell, DanieI, 417 Belize, 214 Behrman, Jere, 187 Disposal, 394 Hazardous Wastes and Their of Transboundary Movements 0f Basel Convention on the Control Best available control technology (BACT) , 264 Best available technology economically achievable (BAT)' 340 , 341 , 345 , 346 Best practicable control technology currently available (BPT), 340 , 345 B 0 れイ the m 添 (Meadows), 3 , 7 , 9 ー 11 , 117 , 120 , 134 , 408 , 462 , 464 Bias contingent valuation method, 34 ー 35 substitution, 135 undervaluation, 186 ー 189 Big Thomas Project, 162 B iochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 337 B i odiversity deforestation and, 196 , 204 pharmaceutical demand and, 213 Bi010gical decision rule, 198 Bi010gical diversity, 66 B ison, 64 ー 66 Black Canyon (C010rad0), 166 Bladder cancer, 400 Boston, Massachusetts, 323 Boston Air-Quality Control Region, Cadmium, 338 Bureau Of Economic Analys is B ulgaria, 95 Bubble policy, 272 , 273 Brundtland report, 432733 Brown, Jerry, 165 (BFRs), 403 Brominated flame retardants Breeder reactors, 142 102 ー 103 farm land deterioration in, extractive reserves in, 210 ー deforestation in, 203 , 445 Brazil Boulding, Kenneth, 456 323 , 420 211 California air pollution controlin, 274 , 314 , 316 , 317 , 321 electricity deregulation in, 149 hazardous substance eXPOSUre and, 388 labeling Of organic produce in, 182 using economic prinCiPles tO conserve water in, 165 California Air Resources Board (CARB), 317 Canada acidifi edlakes in, 287 Passamaquoddy Bay tidal power project and, 46 Cancer ozone depletion and, 295 saccharin and, 400 toxic substances and, 381 C 叩 ital accumulation Of, 99 economic growth and, 409711 energy and, 415 , 416 future productivity 0f, 411 natural, 419720 risk-free cost of, 70 C 叩 italist economies, 56 Carbon dioxide emissions climate change and, 52 , 143 taxes on, 300 ー 301 Carbon monoxide emissions, 314 Carbon tax, 300 ー 301 Carrying c 叩 acity, 219 Car sharing, 318 , 319. See な 0 Automob ⅱ es Cartel izati on 0 ⅱ , 137 ー 142 permit market and, 27 277 Cartels, 69 Carter, Jimmy, 46 , 133 Cell fusion, 178 ー 179 Centers for Disease Control, 394 Central Arizona Project, 157 Centrally panned economies, 56 , 57

C ertification program, automob i le, 315 Charcoal stoves, 445 Chekhov, Anton, 359 Chern0byl disaster, 143 C ん叩ん (Michener), 461 Chevron Corporation, 166 Chicago, lllinois, 50 Chicago Board 0f Trade, 293 ChiId certificates, 456 , 457 Chile, 104 China envi ronmental taxation in, 247 population control in, 111 ChIorofluorocarbons (C FCs), 243 , 295 Citizen suits function of, 352 ー 354 water pollution and, 343 CiviIIiability law, 390 , 391 Civil Rights Act of 1964 , 386 CIean Act Act of 1967 , 260 , 265 ー 266 , 275 , 278 , 280 , 289 CIean Air Act Amendments of 1970 , 261 , 263 , 314 , 315 ー 316 , 321 CIean Air Act Amendments of 1977 , 263 , 264 , 316 , 320 CIean Air Act Amendments of 1990 , 26 , 291 , 317 Clean DeveIopment Mechanism (CDM), 303 CIean Water Act, 340 ー 343 CIean Water Act Amendments of 1972 , 340 , 345 C lean Water Act Amendments of 1977 , 341 , 345 , 346 , 349 Climate change. See な 0 GIob 引 warming carbon dioxide and, 152 , 243 sustainab ⅲ and, 439 Climate Change Convention, 297 Climate engineering, 299 Closed systems, 16 2 C ん豆れ 0 CircIe (Commoner), 19 Co 乢 142 2 Co Q ″″ 0 れ . ・ 2 加 4 CO れ ce ⅲ 0 2 怦 00 ss 砿 2 ルわれれ the 怦 E ズん″ 0 〃砿 0 ″ r Co 記川加 (Jevons), 4 Coase, Ronald, 74 Cobweb model, 191 Cogeneration, 139 COke oven emissions, 279 Colombia f00d stamp programs in, 189 wheat production in, 188 Colorado Project XL and, 317 water pricing in, 169 water rights in, 166 CoIumbus, Christ 叩 her, 4 Combined approach, 43 Command-and-controI (CAC) 叩 proach acid rain and, 289 ー 291 cost-effectiveness of, 268 ー 270 effects of, 270 efficiency of, 265 ー 268 framework for, 261 ー 264 Commoner, Barry, 19 Con 第 on law explanation Of, 388 j0int and severalliability doctrine and, 397 ー 399 judicial-legislative complementarity and, 395 ー 396 limitations ofjudicial remedies and, 396 ー 397 negligence and, 389 ー 390 strict liability and, 390 COI れ mon - P00 ー resources, 64 Common-property resources explanati on of, 63 ー 64 fisheries and, 222 , 224 , 226 groundwater allocation and, 164 Communal Areas Management Program for lndigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), 237 Competitive equilibrium, 60 Composition-of-demand effect, 360 / れ施ズ 485 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, 32 , 393 ー 394 , 397 , 402 Conable, Barber, 424 Congestion externalities, 105 Congestion pricing, 326 ー 327 Congestion t0 膈 , 327 Congressional Budget Office (CBO), 289 Conservation electrical utilities and, 146 trust funds for, 214 water, 164 , 165 , 167 , 168 Conservation easements, 211 ー 212 Conservation Reserve Program, 341 Constant-dollar GDP, 419 Constant-dol lar NDP, 419 Consumer surplus, 58 Consumption indivisible, 66 ー 68 per capita real, 419 , 421 Contemporaneous externali ties, 222 Contingent ranking, 37 ー 38 Contingent valuation bias and, 34 ー 35 explanation of, 34 NOAA study of, 35 ー 36 wildlife viewing and, 39 Copsa Mica, Romania, 57 Cost-effective allocation, 248 ー 249 Cost-effectiveness Of command-and-control approach, 268 ー 270 Of water pollution strategies, 354 ー 355 Cost-effectiveness analysis, 48 ー 50 Cost 0f c 叩 ital, 70 C osts 叩 proaches tO estimation Of, 4273 explanation Of, 17 ー 18 measurement of, 18 Council on Environmental QuaIity benefit estimation study and, 47 envi ronmental impact statement and, 51

486 加施ズ Criminallaw, 390 ー 391 Crude 0 ⅱ , 132 , 140. See な 0 OiI Current reserves, 118 Czechoslovakia, 57 , 347 Daly, Herman, 454757 Dante Alighi eri, 1 d'Arge, Ralph, 180 Dasgupta, Partha, 107 , 436 D 砿 S 記襯 (Miller), 371 Debt deforestation and, 205 ー 206 poverty and, 428729 Debt-nature swaps, 210 , 212 Decision making, 17 ー 24 Declining-block pricing, 169 Deforestation. See な 0 Forestry; Forests biodiversity and, 196 , 204 global warming and, 204 ー 205 land conversion and, 199 ー 202 poverty and, 408 , 426 rubber t 叩 pers and, 445 Degradab 厄 pollutants, 336 ー 337 Delany clause, 399 , 400 Delaware Estuary, 346 , 347 , 355 Demand growth in, 462 income elasticity 0f, 138 price elasticity 0f, 137 ー 138 Demand curves, 18 , 20 Demographic transition theory, 103 ー 105 Denmark emission standards in, 318 fertilizer use in, 181 wind energy in, 151 Dennison, Edward, 100 DepIetable resources allocation of, 81 ー 85 , 128 , 436 classifying stock of, 118 economic development and, 438 Dickens, Charles, 333 Desired emission rate (DER), 321 Desalination, 171 Deregulation, 148 , 149 Depreciation, 419720 explanation 0f, 118 l)iesel emissions, Dillon Reservoir, 351 Dioxin, 393 ー 394 Discounting 38 Dynamic-efficient sustainable two-period model and, 81 ー 85 86 ー 87 sustainability criterion and, objectives of, 81 explanation 0f, 26 , 122 ー 123 Dynamic efficiency Du Pont Corporation, 276 (DSD), 369 DuaIes System Deutschland surface water as, 334 legislation related t0, 342 contamination of, 181 Drinking water. See 記 SO Water Doyle, Arthur Conan, 14 Douglas firs, 197 , 198 , 203 Domi nant P01 icy, 44 Divisibility, 64 genetic, 66 efficient level of, 66 ー 69 biological, 66 Diversity Dissolved oxygen (DO), 337 importance Of, 46 explanation 0f, 23 69 ー 71 divergence Of social and private, choice of, 4576 Discount rate greenhouse effect and, 300 199 forest harvesting decis ion and, explanation 0f, 23 yield, 220 time as factor in, 21 ー 22 sulfur emissions and, 289 fisheries and, 227 ー 230 Economic analysis Ec010gist Union, 68 specific CO ″れ / es Eastern Europe, 57 , 294. See な 0 Easterlin, Richard, 423 Earth Summit, 432 Economic approach confl ict resulting from, 19 tO population control, 105 ー 114 Economic development debt and, 428729 emission reduction and, 303 land ownership patterns and, 426727 natural resource endowments and, 412 population growth and, 96 ー 105 , 426 preservation vs. , 28 relationship between economic growth and, 408 , 418722 sustainab ⅲ and, 433740 (See な 0 Sustainability; Sustainable devel 叩 ment) trade policies and, 427728 Economic growth nature of, 409 poverty and, 423729 (See な 0 Poverty) reduced input flows and, 409711 relationship b etween economic devel 叩 ment and, 408 , 418 ー 422 technological progress limits and, 411712 zero, 456 Economic incentives cost-effectiveness principle and, 451752 explanation Of, 449750 full-cost principle and, 450751 information principle and, 454 property-rights principle and, 452753 sustainability principle and, 453754 Economic rent, 203 ー 204 Economic replenishment, 121 Economics environmental and natural resources, 3 , 10 normative, 17 positive, 17

487 Economic system, 15 ー 17 Economies Of scal e economic growth and, 409 p 叩 ulation growth and, 99 , 100 Ecotourism, 39 Educati on, 102 , 426 Efficiency dynamic, 26 , 81 in government, 76 ー 77 monopolies and, 69 , 70 pursuit 0f, 73 ー 76 sustainability and, 436740 Efficient allocations energy shortages and, 133 for fishery, 220 ー 222 0f groundwater, 159 , 164 0f pollution, 243 ー 245 of surface water, 158 ー 159 sulfur emissions and, 290 ー 291 permits vs. , 254 ー 256 explanation 0f, 250 ー 253 air pollution, 277 ー 278 Emission charges Emerson, Ralph Wald0, 55 , 407 Sarafy, Salah, 453 Eliot, T. S. , 379 cogeneration systems, 139 from renewable resources and deregulation 0f, 148 , 149 EIectricity nuclear processes and, 142 ー 143 management for, 145 ー 148 cons ervation and load Electrical utiliti es Einstein, Albert, 285 Ehrlich, Paul, 375 Efficient sustainable yield, 220 56 ー 60 Efficient property rights structures, Efficient level of durability, 372 two-period model and, 123 substitute and, 125 transition tO renewable N-peri0d model and, 123 ー 125 process and, 126 exploration and technological explanation Of, 122 ー 123 Effici ent intertemporal allocation sustainability and, 86 ー 87 , 439 Emission fees, 280 ー 282 Emission permit system charges vs, 254 ー 256 explanation 0f, 253 EmiSS10n reduction cost-effective all ocation and, 248 ー 249 cost-effective pollution control policies and, 249 ー 250 emission charges and, 250 ー 256 emission standards and, 250 transferable emission permits and, 253 ー 256 Emission reduction credits (ERCs), 271 , 272 , 275 , 328 ー 329 Emission standards automobiles, 315 ー 316 , 321 in Europe, 318 explanation Of, 250 Emissions trading program effectiveness of, 275 ー 277 explanation 0f, 271 ー 273 Kyoto ProtocoI and, 302 ー 303 transferable-permit 叩 proach and, 324 Employment environmental policy and, 413715 fertility rates and, 417 Endangered Species Act 0f 1973 , 19 , 33 Energy. See な 0 specific 〃砿 entr 叩 hylaw and, 16 environmental policy and, 415 ー 416 overview of, 131 ー 133 "soft path, ” 139 substitution Of capital for, 410 sustainab ility and, 443 uncertainty and demand for, 256 Energy P01icy Act 0f 1992 , 317 Enforceability, 56 Enforcement conference, 339 Engineering 叩 proach, 4273 England instream water uses in, 167 wind energy in, 151 加イ Entr 叩 y, 16 Entr 叩 y law, 16 Environment as asset, 15 ー 17 relationship between trade and, 117 , 440741 Environmental COStS agricultural productivity and, 180 ー 182 internalizing, 147 ー 148 market allocations and, 128 Environmental Defense Fund (EDF), 165 , 293 Environmentali mpact statement, 51 Environmental policy employment and, 413715 sustainability and efficiency criteria and, 89 ー 90 Environmental problems examples Of, 10 individual and collective Obj ectives and, 71 ー 72 poverty and distorted market signals as causes 0f, 301 religion as source 0f, 72 Environmental Protection Agency (E PA) aerosol pr 叩 ellants and, 295 air pollution control policy and, 26 , 261 , 314 Allowance Tracking System, 291 ambient ai r quality standards and, 262 , 263 , 266 , 318 ー 320 automobile emissions and, 315 ー 320 , 322 ー 325 best available control technology and, 264 cost forecast studi es and, 47 hazardous pollutants and, 278 ー 279 Project XL, 317 PSD policy and, 263 ー 264 toxic substances and, 382 , 383 , 392 , 393 , 398 , 399 , 402 tradeable permit system and, 298 water polluti on control and, 341 , 342 , 344 ー 347 , 349

488 加イ Environmentalsustainability, 88 Equimarginal principle for cost-effectiveness, 49 explanation Of, 25 , 49 first, 25 Espenshade, Thomas, 102 Etnier, David A. , Jr. , 19 Europe. S22 specific CO ″れ〃 / Eutrophic, 337 Ex estimates, 30 , 47 , 416 210 , 212 mobile-source pollution and, intertemporal, 435 intergenerational, 222 , 224 explanation 0f, 60 ー 62 contemporaneous, 222 Externalities External economy, 62 External diseconomy, 62 368 Extended producer responsibility, E 工〃 0 estimates, 30 , 47 , 416 Exponentialreserve index, 120 Exponential growth, 6 , 10 Expected present value, 44 rights structures, 56 , 60 Exclusivity, Of efficient property Excess emissions formula, 289 312 ー 313 shrimp farming, types of, 62 Extractive reserves, E. ズズ 0 れ / 470 63 Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act, 392 FederaI FOOd, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 391 Federal lnsecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, 392 Feedbackloops explanation Of, 3 negative, 6 ー 7 positive, 6 , 205 , 426 Fertility rates. See ロな 0 P 叩 ulation growth microeconomic theory Of, 108 policies tO reduce, 111 ー 113 productivity and, 417 trends in, 110 , 417 Fertilizer use, 181 , 182 Finland agricultural chemical reduction in, 181 emission standards in, 318 First equi marginal principle, 25 , 49 First law of thermodynamics, 16 Fisheries 叩 propriability and market solutions and, 222 ー 225 aquaculture and, 225 ー 227 biological dimension 0f, 218 ー 220 depleted ocean, 24 economic analysis and, 227 ー 230 individual transferable quotas and, 230 , 232 ー 235 static-efficient sustained yield and, 220 ー 222 taxation and, 230 , 231 200- m ⅱ e limit and, 234 , 236 Fish ranching, 227 FIOW, value placed on, 32 Food. See ロな 0 AgricuIture; Mal nourishment distribution of, 184 ー 185 feast and famine cycles and, 191 ー 192 globalscarcity of, 175 ー 178 stockp ⅱ es Of, 192 supplies for poor, 189 ー 191 Food additives, 391 , 399 , 400 FOOd and Agricultural Organization (FAO ) Secretariat, 192 F00d and Drug Administration (FDA), 391 , 400 FOOd production. See ロな 0 Agriculture in least developed countries, 185 ー 186 undervaluation bias and, 186 ー 189 Forest Reserve Act of 1891 , 207 Forestry. See な 0 Deforestation; Reforestation plantation, 206 soil erosion from, 335 ー 336 sustainable, 206 ー 207 Forests. See な 0 Deforestation; Reforestation attributes of, 196 biological dimension 0f, 197 ー 198 conservation easements and, 211 ー 212 debt-nature swaps and, 210 economics Of harvesting, 199 extractive reserves and, 210 ー 211 land conversion and, 199 ー 202 overview of, 195 ー 196 perverse incentives for landowner and, 202 ー 204 perverse incentives for nations and, 204 ー 205 poverty and debt and, 205 ー 206 public policy regarding, 207 ー 210 roy 引 payments and, 212 ー 214 Forest Stewardship CounciI (FSC), 209 Forrester, Jay, 3 FossiI fuels. See な 0 ec 市ん 2 な taxes on, 300 ー 301 use of, 299 Four Corners area, 256 France emission charges in, 277 nuclear power in, 143 , 145 FrankeI, Francine, 190 Frederck, Ken, 163 Fre eman, A. Myrick, 354 Free rider, 67 ー 68 Free riders, 385 Fuel cells, 150 ー 151 Full-cost principle, 450 ー 451 Fund pollutants efficient allocation Of, 243 ー 245 explanation Of, 242 ー 243 , 336 ー 337 types of, 337 ー 338 gsc か 1

Gaia hypothesis, 7 Gasoline, 316 Genetic diversity, 66 Ge0thermal energy, 150 Germany acidifiedlakes in, 287 car sharing in, 319 emission standards in, 318 fertilizer use in, 181 recycling in, 369 water pollution controlin, 347 ー 348 wind energy in, 151 Gibb on, Edward, 1 ー 2 Gini coefficient, 426727 GIObaI EnvironmentaI Facility challenges of, 299 C limate change G10bal warming. See な 0 G10b 引 scarcity, 175 ー 182 295 ー 297 ozone depletion and, global warning and, 297 ー 305 GIob pollutants Fund, 302 Global Environmental Trust (GEMS), 270 ー 271 Monitoring System GIobaI Envi ronmental (GEF), 302 Grazing rights, 63 ー 64 155 ー 156 The Grapes 砿ル肱 (Steinbeck), 111 ー 113 Grameen Bank (Bangladesh), 160 ー 161 ro 厄 in water resources, efficient ro 厄 for, 76 ー 77 182 ー 183 , 188 ー 189 agricultural policies and, Governments Government failure, 71 ー 72 scientific uncertainty and, 43 positive feedback loops and, 6 policy approaches to, 299 ー 305 overview of, 297 ー 299 deforestation and, 204 ー 205 Greenhouse gases. See ロな 0 GIobaI warming benefit-cost analysis and, 300 , 304 damage caused by, 299 explanation of, 297 methane as, 6 Greenland, 286 Green products, 454 Green revolution, 189 ー 190 Gross domestic product (GDP), 418719 , 421 , 428 Groundwater. See な 0 Water; Water pollution common property issues and, 164 contamination of, 334 ー 336 depletion of, 158 efficient allocation of, 159 , 164 explanation Of, 156 , 334 valuing damage from contamination of, 37 Guinope, Honduras, 445 Gunnison River (CoIorado), 166 Haagen-Smit, A. J ” 314 Habitat conservation areas, 33 Habitat protection, 217 ー 218 Hahn, Robert W. , 268 , 269 Halons, 297 , 298 Handy, William Christ 叩 her, 155 H 叩 piness, 423 Harbor gangs, 226 Hardin, Garrett, 175 , 217 Hartwick, John, 87 Hartwick Rule, 87 ー 88 Hausman, Jerry, 373 , 374 Haveman, Robert, 47 , 413 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 , 393 Hazardous pollutants. See な 0 TOXiC substances control of, 278 ー 281 , 401 disposal Of, 402703 explanation of, 278 Heal, G. M. , 436 Hedonic property value 叩 proach, 36 加ズ 489 Hedonic wage 叩 proach, 3 37 High-grading, 234 The 〃なね砿 e Decline イ 尹〃砿 eRom E 襯が (Gibbon), 1 Hoffer, Eric, 80 F. Hoffman-La Roche & Co. , 380 Honduras, 445 Hooker EIectrochemical, 379 ー 380 Howe, Chuck, 162 Human development index (HDI), 422 Human envi ronment relationshi p, 15 ー 17 Human life effects Of ozone depletion on, 295 effects of toxic substances on, 381 ー 382 value of, 38 , 40 Hungary, 95 Hunting, 64 ー 65 Hydrocarbon emissions, 314 Hydr010gic cycle, 156 Hydro power, 150 ー 151 Hyp0thetical bias, 34 , 35 Hyp0theticalresources, 119 lceland, 150 ldentified resources, 119 lglesias, Enrique, 424725 lmpact analysis, 50 ー 51 lmplicit subsidies, 311 ー 312 lncome distributional fairness in, 457 economic growth and, 424 human devel 叩 ment and, 422 , 423 poll ution levels and, 8 population growth and, 101 ー 102 trends in, 424725 lncreasing-block rate, 167 ー 168 , 170 lndia green revolution in, 190 population controlin, 112

490 / れズ lndicated resources, 119 lndividualtransferab 厄 quotas (ITQs) effectiveness of, 235 explanation 0f, 230 , 232 ー 234 lndivisible consumption, 66 ー 68 lndonesia, 455 lndustrial Economics, lnc. , 351 lndustrialrevolution, 417 lnefficiency explanation 0f, 67 ー 68 pub IiC processes as source Of, 71 ー 72 ofwater allocation, 161 ー 164 lnferred resources, 119 lnflation, 413 lnformati on b ias, 34 lnformation economy, 417718 INHALE, 293 lnputs, 409711 lnspection and maintenance (I &M) programs, 316 , 322 ー 323 lnstitute for Bi0diversity, 213 lnstream water use, 16 167 lntangible benefits, 42 lnteractive resources, 218 lnterface Corporation, 465 lntergenerational externalities, 222 , 224 lntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 297 lnternational Energy Agency, 301 lnte rtemporal externalities, 435 lntertemporal fairness, 85 ー 86 lnvestment incentive, 411 lron ore industry, 127 lrrigation, 182 , 442 ltai ltai disease, 338 ltaly p 叩 ulation growth in, 95 use Of increasing-block rate in, 168 J 叩 an aquaculture in, 227 emission charges in, judicial remedies in, metal poisonings in, 277 , 278 396 ー 397 338 Kakadu Conservation Zone (KCZ) nuclear power in, 143 , 145 recycling in, 361 , 365 Jevons, Stanley, 4 Joint and severalliability doctrine, 397 ー 399 Land ownership, 426 ー 427 Lakes, 334 ー 336 (Kenya), 39 Lake Nakuru National Park Labor supply, 102 requirements 0f, 303 ー 304 explanation 0f, 302 ー 303 Kyoto ProtocoI Krakow, Poland, 57 fertility decline in, 110 economic growth in, 425 Korea Kolstad, Charles, 256 Keynes,J0hn Maynard, 4 Kerala, lndia, 112 Kepone, 389 , 390 sustainable development i n, Lake Nakuru Nati onal Park, 39 elephant population in, 236 Kenya Kalundborg, 469 (Australia), 28 Kakadu National Park (KNP) (Australia), 28 445 Learned Hand formula, 390 Lead Phaseout Program, 325 recycling 0f, 362 emissions from, 316 , 325 Lead Law 0f diminishing returns, 409 productivity, 99 , 100 Law Of diminishing marginal 185 ー 186 Law Of comparative advantage, law; Statuatory law Law. 立 2 Common law; Criminal Latvia, 95 な 0 specific CO ″れ / Latin America, 427 , 442 , 445. See Least-cost (LC) 叩 proach, 347 Lethal-dose determinati on, 382 Liability rules court system and, 74 ー 76 toxic substances and, 388 , 390 (See な 0 Toxi c substances) Liberia, 95 Life Science Products Company, 389 The ん添砿 Gro 盟 (Forrester), 3 Limits-t0-growth standard run, 5 Lindert, Peter, 102 Liquid natural gas (LNG), 135 Littering, 365 Little, Arthur D. , 389 Load management, 147 ー 148 L0bster gangs, 226 Lobsters, 226 , 231 Logging, 203 ー 204 Long-run competitive equilibrium, 60 LOS Angeles, California, 269 , 320 , 444746 Love Canal, 379 ー 380 Lovelock, James, 7 Lovins, Amory, 139 Low-emission vehicle (LEV) regulations, 317 Lowest achievable emission rate (LAER), 263 , 272 Machiavelli, Nicolo, 195 MacNeill, Jim, 425 Malaysia, 438 Mali, 187 Malnourishment distribution of food resources and, 184 ー 191 feast and famine cycles and, 191 ー 192 glOb 引 scarcity Of fOOd and, 175 ー 182 statistics regarding, 174 ー 175 Malthus, Thomas, 2 , 93 Man and B iosphere Program, 212 Marginalbenefits, 108 ー 109 Marginal costs of children, 108 ー 109 explanation of, 21 , 22

0f exploration, 126 of extraction, 123 ー 125 Marginal -external -cost rule, 302 Marginal net benefits effici ent allocation Of water and, 158 ー 159 , 161 explanation Of, 158 ー 159 Marginal opportunity cost curve, 21 Marginal productivity, 99 , 100 Marginal user cost, 84 ー 85 Marietta, Georgia, 366 Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 , 343 Market allocations environmental costs and, 128 , 222 explanation 0f, 126 Of pollution, 245 ー 246 property-right structures and, Methanol vehicles, 326 Methane emissions, 6 Meta-analysis, 36 Meridian NationaI, 444 Merck & Company, 212 ー 213 Mendes, Chico, 211 Mendelsohn, Robert, 297 ー 298 (MEW), 421722 Measure Of economic welfare Measured resources, 119 Mean annualincrement 0 I ) , 198 McKibben, Bill, 2 219 ー 221 Maximum sustainable yield, Mawelle, Sri Lanka, 64 SUPPIY, 335 Commission on Water Massachusetts Legislative Society (MELS), 293 Maryland Environmental Law sustainability and, 435736 126 ー 128 Meyer, Stephen, 441 Mexico City, Mexico, 329 0 ⅱ reserves in, 139 age 0f P 叩 ulation in, 98 Mexico of California, 165 Metropolitan Water District (MWD) Microeconomic theory of fertility, 108 Minamata disease, 338 Minerals, 428 Minimum viable population, 219 Mining Law 0f 1872 , 365 Minke whale, 225 Mitigation strategies, 299 MobiIe-source pollution alternativé fuels and, 326 background of, 314 consequences and, 313 ー 314 economic and political assessment of, 318 ー 325 European approaches tO, 318 externalities and, 312 ー 313 implicit subsidies and, 311 ー 312 overview of, 309 ー 310 reform measures for, 326 ー 329 sources of, 310 U. S. approaches tO, 315 ー 318 Models assessment of, 10 ー 11 optimistic, 7 ー 9 pessimistic, 3 ー 7 , 9 Mon 叩 olies, 69 , 70 Montana, 442 Montreal Protocol, 296 ー 297 Motor-vehicle emissions. See MobiIe-source pollution MuIti-Fiber Arrangement, 427 Multiple cropping, 442 MuItipIe Use-Sustained YieId Act, 208 MunicipaI waste treatment pretreatment standards and, 349 ー 350 subsidies for, 341 , 349 Municipal Wastewater Treatment Construction Grant Amendments of 1981 , 349 Municiple waste, 364 Mussels, 226 Namib ia, 214 NarYaganset Electric Company, 273 NationaI Academy 0f Engineering, 322 加ズ 491 National Academy of Sciences, 322 National Acid Rain Precipitation Assessment Progam, 287 National Coal Model, 289 NationaI CommiSSIon on Air Quality, 322 National contingent valuati on survey, 33 National effluent standards allocating control responsib ility and, 346 ー 347 enforcement issues and, 345 ー 346 in Europe, 347 ー 348 , 470 NationaI Environmental POlicy Act of 1969 , 51 National lnstitute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 392 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 35 ー 36 National Priorities List, 402 National Research Council, 101 , National Science Foundation, 323 Naturalcapital, 419720 Naturalequilibrium, 218 ー 219 Natural gas estimated reserves of, 132 price controls and, 133 ー 137 regulation 0f, 133 as transition fuel in efficient allocation, 133 Naturalresource damages, 343 Natural resource economics effici ent intertemporal allocations and, 122 ー 126 market allocati ons and, 126 ー 128 resource taxonomy and, 117 ー 122 Natural Resources Defense Council, 163 , 319 ー 320 , 343 Nature knows best, 19 The Nature Conservancy, 68 , 166 Nauru, 89 Negative feedbacklo 叩 s, 6 ー 7 Negligence, 389 ー 390 102

492 加施 x Negotiation practicality 0f, 75 private resolution through, 73 ー 74 Net benefits consumer, 57 ー 58 deviation of, 23 expected present value Of, 44 explanation 0f, 21 marginal, 158 ー 159 Net domestic product (NDP), 418719 , 421722 Netherlands agricultural chemicalreduction in, 181 emission standards in, 318 nitrogenous fertilizer use in, 181 wind energy in, 151 Netti ng, 272 New Guinea, 214 New scrap, 363 New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), 264 , 272 New York Public lnterest Research Group (NYPIRG), 335 New Zealand fertilizer use in, 182 , 183 fisheries in, 232 ー 234 , 449 Niagra Mohawk Power Corporation, Nordhaus, William D. , 304 explanation 0f, 32 ー 32 estimation Of passive-use, 35 ー 36 Nonuse values 341 , 350 ー 351 water polluti on control and, explanation 0f, 334 ー 335 costs and, 351 ー 352 Nonpoint sources Nonexclusivity, 64 Nonexcludability, 66 ー 68 NolI, Roger G., 268 , 269 Nixon, Richard, 51 in Sweden, 278 from mobile sources, 310 increase of, 270 in Chicago, 50 Nitrogen OXide emissions 293 Normative analysis, 17 , 24 Northeast Utilities of Connecticut, 293 Northern spotted ow し 33 Norway acidified lakes in, 287 emission standards in, 318 N-period model, 123 ー 125 NucIear power compensation 叩 proach tO, 145 environmental problems related to, 142 ー 144 Price-Anderson Act and, 144 subsidies for, 152 NucI ear Regulatory Commission (NRC) , 144 Nucl ear waste, 143 0 ()bsolescence durability, 372 ー 374 fashion, 372 functional, 371 Occidental PetroIeum Corporation, 379 ()ccupational SafetY and Health Act, 386 , 391 ー 392 Occupational SafetY and Heal th Administration (OSHA), 386 , 392 , 399 , 401 Oceans 0i1 spills and, 336 , 342 ー 343 , 352 , 353 sources Of pollution Of, 336 Offset policy, 272 , 273 0i1 Union, 386 Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers allocation, 133 as transition fuel in efficient reserves of, 141 137 ー 138 price elasticity Of demand and, price controls and, 137 non-OPEC suppliers of, 138 ー 140 and, 138 income elasticity Of demand cartel cohesion and, 140 ー 142 OiI spills effects of, 470 legalremedies for, 352 , 353 list of notable, 336 ocean pollution from, 336 regulations related t0, 342 ー 343 Old scr 叩 , 363 ()pen-access resources explanation 0f, 62 , 64 fisheries and, 222 ー 224 probl ems created by, 64 ー 65 , 435 Open systems, 16 Opportunity cost explanation 0f, 21 Of overexploitation, 65 ー 66 Optimal reuse ratiO, 370 Opti mistic model conclusions of, 7 ー 8 nature of, 8 ー 9 pessimistic VS. , 9 Optimization procedures, 49 Options, evaluating predefined, 17 ー 18 , 20 ー 24 Option values, 32 Oregon, 368 Oregon Department Of Energy, 368 Organic farming, 182 Organization for Economic CO- operation and Development (OEDC), 394 Organization Of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 137 ー 141 Output measures, 418 Oyster industry, 223 Ozone ambient standards for, 266 depletion Of, 295 ー 297 , 299 ー 300 from mobile sources, 310 tradab 厄 permits and, 298 Pacific Gas and EIectricity, 149 Pacific salmon, 228 Pacific yew, 213 Packard, Vance, 371

493 Paper industry, 368 , 370 Papua, New Guinea, 214 Pareto, Vilfredo, 25 Paret0 optimality, 25 ー 26 Particulates, 266 Passamaquoddy Bay tidal power project, 46 Peaking units, 146 Peak-load pricing, 147 Pecuniary externalities, 62 Pelletization, 127 Performance bonds, 403 Persistent pollutants, 338 Perverse incentives for landowners, 202 ー 204 in centrally planned economies, 56 , 57 coal and, 142 command-and-control approach to, 261 ー 270 efficient allocation of, 243 ー 245 income and, 8 loss in use value caused by, 32 market allocation of, 245 ー 246 thermal, 337 Pollution control. S22 な 0 Air pollution; Water pollution benefit-cost analysis and, 26 ー 28 cost-effectiveness analysis and, 49 ー 50 cost-effective policies for, 249 ー 250 dilution as method of, 287 ー 289 efficient policy responses and, 246 ー 248 emission charges and, 250 ー 256 new-source regulatory bias in, 411 transferable emission permits and, 253 ー 256 PoIIution havens hypothesis, 440 Population density poverty and, 102 ー 103 recycling and, 361 Population growth economi C approach tO control of, 105 ー 114 economic development and 96 ー 105 , 426 employment and, 417 叩 timal, 93 ー 94 stabilization of, 456 , 457 trends in, 94 ー 95 , 409 in United States, 95 ー 96 views on, 93 ー 94 water allocation and, 160 Porter, Michael, 440 Porter hypothesis, 440 Portugal, 95 Positive economics, 17 Positive feedback 100PS explanation Of, 6 poverty and, 205 , 426 Post-industrial society, 417 加施ズ Potentialreserves, 118 Poverty agriculture and, 426 debt and, 428729 for nations, 204 ー 205 Pessimistic model conclusions of, 3 ー 6 explanati on Of, 3 nature of, 6 ー 7 optimistic vs. , 9 Pesticides multiple cropping and, regulation of, 392 use of, 181 , 189 Pharmaceuticals, 213 Phosphorus, 351 ー 352 Photovoltaics, 150 Pimentel, David, 93 , 94 Planned obsolescence, 359 Plantation forestry, 206 Poaching, 236 , 237 442 Point sources, 334 , 340 ー 341 Poland, 57 Pollutants. See ロな 0 Acid rain; Air pollutants; Water pollutants accumulating, 338 fund, 242 ー 245 , 336 ー 338 global, 295 ー 305 hazardous, 278 ー 280 mobile-source, 310 persistent, 338 regional, 286 ー 294 stock, 242 , 246 , 337 surface, 243 taxonomy 0f, 242 ー 243 Pollution. See な 0 Acid rain; Air pollution; MobiIe-source pollution; Water pollution deforestation and, 205 ー 206 , 408 environmental problems and, 301 , 408 f00d production and, 185 , 186 , 189 ー 191 land ownership patterns and, 426 ー 427 population dens ity and, 102 ー 103 p 叩 ulation growth and, 426 positive feedback 100PS and, 205 , 426 trade polici es and, 427728 Preferential-use doctrine, 161 ー 162 Present value calculation of, 23 expected, 44 explanation Of, 22 , 24 Preservation, 28 Pretreatment standards, wastewater, 349 ー 350 Price-Anderson Act of 1957 , 144 Price controls cartels and, 139 ー 142 on natural gas, 133 ー 137 substitution bias and, 135 Price elasticity of demand, 137 ー 138 Price inelastic, 121 Pricing congestion, 326 ー 327 peak- load, 147 scarcity and, 8 volume, 366 Primary effects, Of environmental projects, 40 , 42 Prior-appropriation doctrine, 160 , 161 Private discount rates, 70 , 71 Producer surplus, 58 ー 60 Product durab ility durability obsolescence and, 372 ー 374 fashion obsolescence and, 372 functional obsolescence and, 371

494 加施工 Productivity agricultural, 180 ー 182 0f capital, 411 employment trends and, 418 environmental policy and, 413715 fertility rates and, 417 marginal, 99 , 100 Product safety, 387 Profit maximization, 199 ー 202 , 206 Prognostication, 4 Project XL, 317 PROPER (Program for Pollution Control, Evaluation, and Rating) , 455 Property rights allocation of, 74 ー 75 efficient structure Of, 56 ー 60 explanation 0f, 55 , 56 fisheries and, 223 pub lic goods and, 66 9 scarcity rent and, 60 systems 0f, 62 ー 66 Pr 叩 erty-rights principle, 452753 Property-rights structures market allocations and, 126 ー 128 water allocation and, 160 Pr 叩 erty rul es, 74 ー 76 Proposition 65 (California), 388 Prot0type Carbon Fund (PCF), 303 PSD policy, 263 ー 264 , 267 Public goods acquired rights as, 166 efficient provision Of, 66 ー 69 explanation 0f, 66 privately provided, 68 Public UtiIity ReguIatory PoIicies Act of 1978 , 139 Ramsey Canyon Preserve, 166 Rand Corporation, 295 ー 296 , 398 Rawls, John, 85 Reagan, Ronald, 341 Real consumption per capita„ 419 , 421 Real-resource costs, 230 RecIamation proj ects, 162 ー 163 Recomb inant DNA, 178 Recyclable resources, 121 Recycling corrective public policies and, 365 ー 369 costs and efficiency 0f, 363 decisions regarding, 363 ー 365 efficient, 361 ー 362 extraction and disposal costs of, 360 lead, 362 pollution damage and, 368 , 370 population density and, 361 scr 叩 market and, 365 subsidies on raw materials and, 365 Reforestation, 299 Refundable deposits, 367 Refuse Act of 1899 , 339 Regional C lean Air lncentives Market ( RECLAIM) (California), 274 Regulations cost 0f risk-reducing, 41 differentiated, 320 ー 321 1 egislative and executive, 76 Religion, 72 Renewable Portfolio Standard, 148 Renewable resources envi ronmental problems and, Replacement rate, 96 Repetto, Robert, 235 , 420 Rent seeking, 71 types Of, 150 ー 151 transition to, 125 , 148 , 150 sustainability and, 436 , 437 storage 0f, 122 explanation Of, 122 142 ー 145 resources 62 , 64. See な 0 Open-access 25 れ″ I ″″ 5 property resources, Residual, 245 , 246 potential, 118 misusing data on, 120 extractive, 210 ー 211 current, 118 Reserves Republic Steel, 127 Reproduction, human, 382 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 392 ー 393 , 395 , 399 Resource endowment, 118 Resources. See な 0 5 〃 ec ~ C resources common-pool , 64 common-property, 63 ー 64 , 164 , 222 , 224 , 226 depletable, 81 ー 85 , 118 , 121 , 128 , 428 , 436 hypothetical, 119 identified, 119 indicated, 119 inferred, 119 measured, 119 open-access, 62 , 64 ー 65 , 222 ー 224 , 435 recyclable, 121 renewable, 122 , 125 , 142 ー 145 , 148 , 150 ー 151 , 436 , 437 res れ″ property, 62 , 64 speculative, 119 taxonomy Of, 117 ー 122 undiscovered, 119 Retirement effect, 98 Ricardo, David, 60 Right Of contribution, 398 Right-to-Know laws, 386 Riparian rights, 159 Risk acceptable, 400 assessment of, 31 from tOXiC substances, 384 ー 386 treatment of, 4375 RiSk aversion explanation Of, 4475 greenhouse effect and, 300 Risk-free cost of c 叩 ital, 70 Risk-loving behavior, 4475 Risk management benefit estimation issues and, 40 , 42 , 4778 cost-effectiveness analysis and, 48 ー 50 cost estimation approaches and, 4273 discount rate and, 4576

加工 State-properties regimes, 62 Static efficiency 495 impact analysis and, 50 ー 51 valuation method classification and, 3370 values and, 32 ー 33 Risk-neutrality, 44 , 45 Risk premium, 70 Rivers, 334 ー 336 R 四催 J. の襯 0 れイ General 0 ん 396 Romania, 57 RoyaltY payments, 212 ー 214 Rubb er tappers, 445 Ruckelshaus, William, 320 Russell, Clifford, 355 Ruttan, Vernon, 111 Rwanda, 95 Saccharin, 400 Sadik, Nafis, 93 , 114 Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 , 342 Salmon, 228 Santayana, 117 Sathirathai, Suthawan, 63 Saudi Arabia, 141 Savings, in low-income countries, 99 Scarcity COPi ng With increasing, 463764 effects of, 8 , 10 of food, 175 ー 182 impending, 375 marginal used cost and, 84 Scarcity rent explanation 0f, 60 marginal, 159 price controls and, 13 137 Schaefer model, 218 Scotland acidified lakes in, 287 instream water uses in, Scrap market for, 365 types Of, 363 Scrubbers cost of, 293 ー 294 explanation 0f, 290 167 Sea scallops, 235 Secondary effects, Of environmental projects, 40 , 42 Second law Of thermodynamics, 16 SeIf-extinction premise, 1 ー 2 Shakespeare, William, 30 Shell 0 ⅱ , 353 Shrimp farming, 63 Sierra Club, 263 , 343 Simon, Julian, 7 ー 9 , 94 , 174 , 375 S ing 叩 ore economic growth in, 425 mobi le-source pollution control in, 328 Skin cancer, 295 S mog trading, 273 ー 274 S nail darter, 19 Social discount rates, 70 , 71 SOiI erosion forestry and, 335 ー 336 poverty and, 408 , 426 trends in, 102 , 180 ー 181 S01ar energy cost of, 138 explanation Of, 150 outlook for, 145 SoIid waste. See な 0 Waste disposal dealing with i ncreasing generation 0f, 24 recycling 0f, 360 ー 368 sustainability and, 443 ー 444 Southeast Asia, 102 ー 103 SOViet Union, former impact 0f 0bal warming on, 299 nuclear safety standards in, 143 pollution in, 56 , 57 Speculative resources, 119 Speth, Gus, 205 ー 206 Sport utility vehicles (SUVS), 311 ー 312 Sri Lanka fishing rights in, 64 fOOd stamp programs in, 189 StabIe equilibrium, 219 Starting-point bias, 34 , 35 State implementation plan (SIP), 262 ー 263 tO compare resource allocations, 26 examples 0f, 80 explanation 0f, 25 ー 26 Static-efficient sustained yield, 220 ー 222 Static reserve index, 120 Stationary population, 96 Statuatory law balancing costs and, 399701 degree and form Of intervention and, 401 scale 0f prob lem and, 402 toxic substances and, 391 ー 394 Steady-state economy, 455757 Steel industry, 61 Steinbeck, John, 155 Stock, value placed on, 32 Stock pollutants, 242 , 246 , 337 Strategic bias, 34 Strict liability, 390 Stumpage value, 203 Subsidies implicit, 311 ー 312 for municipal waste treatment, 341 , 349 on raw materials, 365 for sustainable energy sources, 151 ー 152 Sulfur allowance program, 291 ー 294 Sulfur emissions COStS associated With reduction of, 290 economic analysis and, 289 sulfur allowance program and, 291 ー 294 Superfund Act. See Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and LiabilitY Act Surface pollutants, 243 Surface water. See な 0 Water; Water pollution efficient allocation of, 158 ー 159 explanation 0f, 156 , 334 Survey 叩 proach, 42 , 43

496 加施工 Sustainability 叩 plication 0f, 87 ー 88 economic development and, 433 ー 440 efficient allocations and, 86 ー 87 , 439 environmental policy and, 89 ー 90 explanation Of, 86 , 437 population growth and, 105 weak, 89 SustainabIe development agriculture and, 181 , 183 , 189 , 442 energy and, 443 energy efficiency and, 416 fisheries, 219 ー 221 forced transition to, 454 ー 457 forestry and, 206 ー 207 , 209 future outlook for, 467770 incentives for, 464 , 465 international cooperati on and, 446748 managing transition tO, 444746 opportuniti es for cooperation in, 448749 restructuring incentives and, 449 ー 454 steady-state economy and, 455757 trade and environment and, 440741 waste reduction and, 443744 Sweden acidified lakes in, 287 agricultural chemical reduction in, 181 emission charges in, 278 emission standards in, 318 nucl ear power in, 143 Switch point, 125 Switzerland car shari ng in, 319 emission standards in, 318 grazing rights in, 63 ー 64 recycling in, 362 water pricing in, 168 , 169 Synthetic natural gas (SNG), 135 Taiwan, 425 "Take-back" principle, 369 TaIavera, Fray Hernando de, 4 311 ー 312 sport utility vehicles and, tO promote recycling, 367 ー 368 on fossil fuels, 300 ー 301 fisheries and, 230 environmental, 247 , 470 low-emitting vehicles, 318 tO encourage purchase Of Taxes Tangible benefits, 42 Techn010gicalprogress T 01 , 213 Three Mile lsland accident, 144 involvement of, 387 ー 388 Third parties, toxic substances and Thermodynamics laws, 16 Thermodynamics, 16 Thermodynamic efficiency, 135 Thermal pollution, 337 103 ー 105 Theory of demogr 叩 hic transition, eo 砿 J ″ ce (RawIs), 85 Tha Po village (ThaiIand), 63 shrimp farming in, 63 187 price responsiveness study in, Thailand Tellico Dam, 19 resource allocation and, 126 in iron ore industry, 127 explanation 0f, 121 411712 economic growth and, 409 , Total benefits, 20 ー 21 Total allowabl e catch, 234 Tissue culture, 178 Time value of money, 22 Times Beach, Missouri, 393 ー 394 analysis, 21 ー 22 Time, as factor in economic Threshol d concept, 265 Total costs, 21 , 22 TotaI fertility rate (TFR) explanation 0f, 96 , 97 in lndia, 112 TOtal margi nalcosts, 123 TotaI Maximum DaiIy Load (TMDL) provisions, 342 TOtal willingness t0 pay (TWP), 20 , 32 Toxicity acute, 382 chronic, 382 explanation Of, 380 ー 381 Toxic substances. S22 な 0 Hazardous pollutants accidents involving, 379 ー 380 assurance bonds and, 402703 common law and, 388 ー 390 , 395 ー 399 criminallaw and, 390 ー 391 health effects associated with, 381 ー 382 international agreements concerning, 394 latency periOd for exposure tO, 382 ー 384 legal remedies in control Of, 389 , 394703 number of, 382 , 383 occupational hazards from, 384 ー 386 product safety and, 387 statuatory law and, 391 ー 394 , 399702 third party victims of, 387 ー 388 uncertainty surrounding, 384 Toxic Substances Control Act, 295 , 393 , 402 Trade poverty and, 427728 relationship between envi ronment and, 117 , 440 ー 441 Tragedy Of the commons, 64 Transaction costs, 76 Transferability, of efficient property rights structures, 56

Transferable emission permits charges vs. , 254 ー 256 explanation of, 253 Transfer costs, 230 , 296 Transitionallow-emitting vehicles (TLEVs), 317 Transition fuels, 142 ー 145 Transportati on. See Mobile-source pollution Travel-cost methods, 36 , 39 Tredgold, Thomas, 4 TrichloroethyIene (TCE), 37 TrickIe irrigation, 442 Trust funds, 214 Tucson, Arizona, 165 , 170 Turkey, 168 Two-peri0d model dynamic efficiency and, 81 ー 85 efficient intertemporal allocations and, 123 UndervaIuation bias, 186 ー 189 Undiscovered resources, 119 Unemployment, 413 , 417 UNESCO, 211 , 212 Uniform treatment (UT) strategy, 347 Union Carbide, 380 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit), 432 United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 422 United Nations Environment Program, 271 United Nati ons Framework Convention on Climate C hange Usufruct right, 160 , 203 Use values, 32 U. S. Geological Survey (USGS), 118 U. S. Forest Service, 207 , 208 Uranium, 142 , 143 University Of Zimbabwe, 237 (USPS), 317 United States Postal Service (UNFCCC), 302 Valuation contingent, 34 ex ante, 30 Value 0f averted birth, 106 methods to estimate, 3370 types Of, 32 ー 33 ofwildlife viewing, 39 Viruses, 338 V01ume pricing, 366 Waste disposal. See な 0 Solid waste corrective public policies and, 365 ー 369 costs and efficiency of, 363 , 365 decisions regarding, 363 ー 365 pollution damage and, 368 , 370 , 371 scr 叩 market and, 365 subsidies raw materials and, 365 sustainability and, 443744 Waste-0il recycling, 367 2 Ⅳ川 2 ん (Packard), 371 Water conservation of, 164 , 165 , 167 , 168 contamination Of drinking, 181 current allocati on system for, 159 ー 164 desalination of, 171 effici ent all ocation Of scarce, 158 ー 159 potential for scarcity of, 156 ー 158 pricing 0f, 163 ー 164 , 167 ー 170 remedies for, 164 ー 170 Water pollutants. See な 0 Pollutants accumulating, 338 fund, 336 ー 338 Water pollution in lakes and rivers, 334 ー 336 in oceans, 336 , 342 ー 343 / れイ既 497 types Of water susceptible to, 334 Water pollution control amb i ent standards and zero discharge goals and, 344 assessment of, 354 ー 355 characteristi cs of, 333 ー 334 citizen suits and, 352 ー 354 in Europe, 347 ー 348 for fund pollutants, 337 ー 338 legislation for, 339 ー 342 national effluent standards and, 345 ー 348 nonpoint pollution and, 350 ー 352 ocean dumping and, 343 0 ⅱ spills and, 342 ー 343 , 352 , 353 pretreatment standards and, 349 ー 350 private enforcement and, 343 TDML program for, 342 water treatment subsidies and, 349 Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1956 , 339 ー 340 Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 , 339 Water QuaIity Act of 1965 , 340 Water transfers, 161 ー 162 , 164 Weather, 191 ー 192 WeIfare measures, 418 West, Mae, 260 WestIands Water D istrict, 163 White, C. M. , 127 White, Lynn, Jr. , 72 Wilderness Act of 1964 , 208 Wildlife viewing, 38 Willingness to pay, 20 , 39 Willingness-to-pay estimates, 35 Wind energy, 150 , 151 Women income-earning potential Of, 111 ー 114 p 叩 ulation growth rates and, 426 tOXiC substance exposure and 382 , 386

498 加ズ Wood-burning stoves, 76 Working Assets Funding Source, 293 World Bank, 8 , 96 , 179 , 188 , 302 , 303 , 329 , 424 , 428 WorId Emergency Stockpile, 192 WorId FertiIity Survey, 94 WorId HeaIth 0rganization (WHO), 271 World Heritage Fund, 211 WorId Heritage List (United Nations), 28 WorId Neighbors, 445 World Resources lnstitute, 189 , 420 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), 209 , 237 World Wildlife Fund, 214 166 Yellowstone River VaIIey (Montana), Zambia, 424 Z ero discharge goal, 344 Zero economic growth, 456 Zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) regulations, 317 Zimbabwe, 236 , 237 Zimbabwe Trust, 237 Zurich, Switzerland, 168 , 169

Editor-in-Chief: Denise Clinton Acquisitions Editor: Adrienne D'Ambrosi0 Editorial Assistant: Catherine B ernstock Production Supervisor: Meredith Gertz senior Media producer: Melissa Honig Executive Marketing Manager: Stephen Frail Marketing Manager: Deborah Meredith Supplements Editor: Diana Theriault project Coordination and page Makeup: Electronic publishing Services lnc. , NYC senior Manufacturing Buyer: Hugh Crawford cover Designer: Regina Hagen K01enda Cover lmage : B randX lmages Copyright ◎ 2004 by pearson Education, lnc. , publishing as Pearson Addison Wesley. AII rights reserved. NO part Of this publication may be reproduced' stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or bY any means' electronic' mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise' without the prior written permission 0f the publisher. Printed in the United States Of America Library Of Congress Cataloging- in-Publication Data Tietenberg, Thomas H. Environmental economics and POliCY / Tom Tietenberg. p. cm. (The Addison-Wesley series in economics) lncludes bibliogr 叩 hical references and index. ISBN 0-321-19412-8 (pbk. ) 1. Environmental economics. HD75.6. T54 2004 333.7 ー - dc22 Ⅱ . Series. I. Title. ISBN 0-321-19412-8 1 2 34 5 6 789 10 ーーげーー 06 05 04 03 ー 4th ed. 2003062333